Knowledge “Acts”
1 Question Asking and Answering
Question asking and answering is a foundational process by which what people know tacitly becomes expressed, and hence, externalized as knowledge. [Searle, J., 1969] that amongst others categorizes question asking as a form of a speech act.Quigley and Debons [1999] adopted a similar stance that considers information as texts that primarily answer ‘informative’ questions such as who, when, what, or where while knowledge is considered as texts that answer more ‘explanatory’ or ‘meaning related’ questions such as why or how.
2 Posting Content to Repositories
Contributing content such as lessons-learned, project experiences, and success stories is another approach to knowledge sharing.The capturing of best practice has often been highlighted as a form
of externalized knowledge.
Nick et al. [2001], noting the importance of learning by experience, point out that experience bases can be developed using case-based reasoning as the underlying concept. However, they also note that experience repositories require continuous maintenance and updating in order to handle continuous streams of experience.
Selvin and Buckingham [2002] describe a tool, Compendium, that claims to support rapid knowledge construction.They ground their claim on an empirical case study of its use in a corporate contingency planning situation by demonstrating the creation of knowledge content in a real time ‘on-the-fly’mode of content authoring, complemented by collaborative validation.
3 (re)Using Knowledge
Desouza et al. [2006] assert that the decision to consume knowledge can be framed as a problem of risk evaluation, with perceived complexity and relative advantage being identified as factors relating to intentions to “consume” knowledge.
McMahon et al. [2004], studying teamwork involving engineering design, suggest that both codification and personalization approaches to knowledge reuse are relevant. They recognize the notion of information value, allowing for the matching of information to the knowledge needs of the user. They propose that good representations of both information characteristics and user characteristics are essential.
4 Knowledge - Based Decision Making
In general, decision making involves identifying alternatives, projecting probabilities and outcomes of alternatives, and evaluating outcomes according to known preferences and implications for stakeholders.
information flows are a central process that bridges knowledge creation and decision making activity. Information flows continuously between sense making, knowledge creating, and decision making, so that the outcome of information use in one mode provides the elaborated context and the expanded resources for
information use in the other modes [Choo, C., 2002].
Knowledge Management in Practice
Under the aegis of ‘knowledge management’, there are three types of processes that are generally
considered to be essential:
considered to be essential:
- finding or uncovering knowledge [Ehrlich, K., 2003, Learn, L., 2002, Zack,M., 1999],
- sharing knowledge [Ackerman et al., 2003],
- and the development of new knowledge [Argyris and Schon, 1978, 1996,Baumard, P., 1999,Harvard Business Review, 1998].
Allmay play a role in assisting with decision making and encouraging innovation.
Finding Information and Knowledge
Finding information and knowledge refers to processes that allow organizations to make sense and make use of data, information, and knowledge objects that may be present but are not codified, analyzed, nor accessible to members.
Finding information and knowledge refers to processes that allow organizations to make sense and make use of data, information, and knowledge objects that may be present but are not codified, analyzed, nor accessible to members.
Knowledge exists in all organizations, but all knowledge may not be explicit.Knowledge objects or artifacts are entities that represent knowledge existing within organizational members [McInerney, C., 2002].
One aspect of finding and dissemination of information is the organization of knowledge objects so that they can be found easily. Assigning index terms, tagging or, in the case of an intranet and the Web, metadata, allows ease of retrieval [Learn, L., 2002].
Sharing Information and Knowledge
Sharing refers to the willingness and ability of the knowledgeable to share what they know to help others
expand their own learning and knowing. Teaching and learning activities, such as online universities in industry, mentoring programs, apprenticeships, and training programs all serve as opportunities for individuals to share knowledge.
expand their own learning and knowing. Teaching and learning activities, such as online universities in industry, mentoring programs, apprenticeships, and training programs all serve as opportunities for individuals to share knowledge.
Based on his experience at Arthur D. Little, he found that the principal reason for reluctance on the part of key players to put their knowledge into a lessons learned database was a concern that the lesson learned might be misapplied if the congruence, or the lack of, between the context of the area from which the lesson
was derived and the context of the intended application area was not well understood.
was derived and the context of the intended application area was not well understood.
Development of Knowledge
Knowledge development takes place when individuals work to create new understandings, innovations, and a synthesis of what is known already together with newly acquired information or knowledge. Meetings, teleconferences, planning sessions, knowledge cafes, and team think tank sessions all serve to help workers develop knowledge together.
Allowing individuals to take risks and occasionally make mistakes (and learn from them) can also develop a culture of innovation that fosters the creation of new knowledge through research and experimentation.
Knowledge Management Issues
Knowledge is most commonly categorized as either explicit or tacit.This char acterization is rather too simple, but a more important point, and a criticism, is that it is misleading. A much more nuanced and useful characterization is to describe knowledge as explicit, implicit, and tacit.
- Explicit: information or knowledge that is set out in tangible form.
- Implicit: information or knowledge that is not set out in tangible form, but could be.
- Tacit: information or knowledge that one would have extreme difficulty operationally setting out in tangible form.
a knowledge that could only be gained or transferred by having engineers work alongside bread makers
and learn the motions and the ‘feel’ necessary to knead bread dough [Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995].
and learn the motions and the ‘feel’ necessary to knead bread dough [Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995].
Prusak, L. [2001] uses the example of reading TedWilliams’ “The Art of Hitting” in an attempt to improve his little league batting skills, and of how little of TedWilliams’ knowledge could, in fact, be made explicit or transferable.
Implicit knowledge is that which has not been made explicit, but could be, an example might be: “One might think that from organization X’s structure and their organizational chart that for this area Smith would be the decision maker, but in fact it is Menendez.”
Ridings et al. [2002] describe a model of trust that they believed occurred in virtual community networks (CoPs). In this model, there are three inputs that lead to trust and to the outputs of the desire to get information and the desire to give information.
The three inputs are
(1) perceived responsiveness
is the notion that individuals will eagerly give more information and desire to get information if others respond to them in the network.
(2) others confiding personal information
is about relieving the feelings of not knowing the people that are in the network.
(3) disposition to trust
More specifically it has been defined as the, “extent that she or he demonstrates a consistent tendency to be willing to depend on others across a
broad spectrum or situations and persons”
the emphasis upon “pain points”[Durham,M., 2004,Hasanali, F., 2004, Short and Azzarello, 2004]. Look for a pain point, an area where the organization has a problem and where a success, even a small one, will be visible.
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